UNIVERSITY  OF  OREGON  BULLETIN 

t . 


New  Series  NOVEMBER,  1906  Vol.  IV,  No.  1 


NOVEMBER,  1906 


Published  bi-monthly,  and  entered  at  the  postoffice  at  Eugene,  Oregon, 
second  class  matter. 


STATE  SYSTEMS  OF  HIGH 
SCHOOL  CONTROL 

HENRY  DAVIDSON  SHELDON 
Head  Department  of  Education 

A STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  FOUR-YEAR 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  OREGON 

GEORGE  W.  HUG 


Bulletins  of  the  University  of  Oregon 

New  Series 


VOL.  I 

1.  General  Announcements.  November,  1903.  Exhausted. 

2.  Beowulf.  Prof.  I.  M.  Glen.  January,  1904. 

3.  Water  Power  on  the  McKenzie  River.  Prof.  E.  H. 
McAlister.  March,  1904.  Exhausted. 

4.  Mineral  Resources  and  Mineral  Industries  of  Oregon. 
For  1903.  Compiled  by  the  Department  of  Chemistry.  May, 
1904. 

5.  Catalogue  for  1903-1904. 

VOL.  II 

1.  Water  Power  on  the  Santiam.  Prof.  E.  H.  McAlister. 
November,  1904. 

2.  Tendencies  in  Recent  American  Road  Legislation. 
Prof.  F.  G.  Young.  January,  1905. 

3.  General  Register  of  the  University  of  Oregon,  1873- 
1904.  March,  1905. 

4.  General  Announcements  for  1905-1906.  Exhausted. 

5.  Catalogue  for  1904-1905.  Exhausted. 

VOL.  Ill 

1.  State  Normal  School  Systems  of  the  United  States. 
Prof.  H.  D.  Sheldon.  November,  1905. 

2.  Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  the  University.  Jan- 
uary, 1906. 

3.  Some  Botanical  Notes  from  the  Biological  Laboratory. 
Prof.  Albert  R.  Sweetser.  March,  1906. 

A New  Fossil  Pinniped.  Prof.  Thomas  Condon.  Supple- 
ment to  No.  3.  May,  1906. 

4.  Catalogue  of  the  University  of  Oregon,  1905-1906. 
May,  1906. 

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UNIV£ftSi(>  ILLINVfS. 

STATE  SYSTEMS  OF  HIGH 
SCHOOL  CONTROL 


HENRY  DAVIDSON  SHELDON 
Head  Department  of  Education 


A STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  FOUR-YEAR 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  OREGON 


GEORGE  W.  HUG 


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STATE  SYSTEMS  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  CONTROL 


The  early  English  settlers  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  brought 
with  them,  as  a part  of  their  heritage,  the  institution  of  secondary 
education,  known  at  that  time  as  the  “grammar  school.”  This 
is  better  designated  today  as  a “ Latin  school,”  owing  to  the  ap- 
plication of  this  old  term  to  the  upper  grades  of  the  common 
school.  The  course  of  study  in  this  school  was  almost  en- 
tirely confined  to  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  and  literatures, 
with  a slight  element  of  mathematics.  The  school  was  essential- 
ly aristocratic  in  character,  its  aim  being  to  prepare  boys,  usu- 
ally of  the  more  well-to-do  classes,  for  college  and  the  professions. 
Latin  schools,  in  the  main,  were  supported  by  a public  tax  levied 
by  the  towns  or  counties.  Regularly  organized  systems  existed  in 
four  of  the  colonies — Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 
New  Hampshire.  If  we  can  judge  from  the  records,  these  Latin 
schools  were  never  popular,  and  were  sustained  with  increasing 
effort  on  the  part  of  their  promoters.  Their  inelastic  curriculum 
was  poorly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  a new,  struggling  community, 
and  the  sparsity  of  population  prevented  the  concentration  of  pu- 
pils necessary  to  make  municipal  institutions  a success. 

Consequently  there  arose,  during  the  period  of  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  a new  type  of  school  known  as  the  “ academy,” 
which  for  many  years  provided  most  of  the  secondary  education 
of  the  country.  The  academy  differed  from  the  “ Latin  school  ” 
in  possessing  a much  wider  and  more  elastic  curriculum,  includ- 
ing the  sciences  and  English  branches.  It  also  depended  for  its 
initiative  and  control  on  private  individuals  or  religious  denomina- 
tions, rather  than  on  the  state  or  municipality.  This’fact  did  not 
prevent  the  state  from  granting  large  tracts  of  land  and  sums  of 
money  to  the  academies.  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Massachu- 
setts and  other  states  adopted  schemes  for  chartering  and  subsi- 
dizing academies.  At  the  outset,  the  academies  were  promoted 
as  a protest  against  the  classical  formalism  of  the  old  “Latin 


5 


schools  ” and  the  colleges,  but  later  on  they  took  the  place  of  the 
“Latin  schools”  in  preparing  students  for  college.  They  were 
not  closely  connected  with  the  common  schools  at  any  period  of 
their  existence,  and,  while  popular  in  their  origin,  as  time  went 
on,  the  academies  became  more  and  more  the  schools  for  the 
upper,  middle,  or  well-to-do  classes,  and  flourished  at  the  expense 
of  the  people's  schools. 

From  1815  on,  however,  a more  democratic  ideal  began  to 
prevail  in  American  society.  Class  barriers  were  obliterated  and 
a strong  demand  for  increased  efficiency  in  the  common  schools 
arose.  The  public  high  school  appeared  as  a phase  of  this  com- 
mon school  movement,  many  of  the  first  high  schools  being  re- 
garded as  simply  the  upper  portion  of  the  elementary  school.  The 
first  American  high  school  vas  founded  in  Boston  in  1821,  but 
for  many  years  the  increase  in  the  number  of  high  schools  was 
slow.  In  1850  there  were  only  forty  public  high  schools  in  the 
country,  and  at  the  close  of  the  civil  war  the  great  majority  of 
the  secondary  pupils  were  in  the  academies. 

in  the  last  generation  a great  change  has  taken  place.  Ow- 
ing to  the  increase  in  wealth,  the  greater  concentration  of  popu- 
lation in  cities  and  towns,  and  to  the  development  of  excellent 
systems  of  gradation  for  the  smaller  children,  the  number  of  pub- 
lic high  schools  and  students  has  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
In  1889-'90  there  were  221,522  secondary  students  in  public 
institutions,  as  against  145,481  in  academies  and  other  private 
institutions.  In  1903-’04,  the  last  year  for  which  the  commis- 
sioner of  education  has  given  us  the  statistics,  the  number  of  stu- 
dents in  public  institutions  had  increased  almost  three-fold,  being 
652,804,  while  the  number  in  private  institutions  had  remained 
almost  stationary,  the  exact  figure  being  169,431.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  ( 1904)  there  are  822,235  pupils  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  the  country,  which  is  slightly  mere  than  one  per  cent, 
of  the  population.  This  is  a ratio  larger,  all  facts  considered, 
than  that  of  any  other  great  nation.  An  analysis  of  the  following 
figures  shows  the  varying  fortunes  of  the  private  secondary  insti- 
tutions in  the  different  sections  of  the  country.  In  the  South, 
alone,  are  they  able  to  maintain  their  hold,  and  even  there  the 
public  high  school  leads  in  the  number  of  students,  the  figures 


6 


being  53,701  for  private  schools  to  88,191  for  the  public  insti- 
tutions. 

The  statistics  for  the  other  sections  run  as  follows:  East — 
New  England  and  Middle  States,  211,304  public,  51,477  private. 
West — Mississippi  Valley,  Rocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  Coast, 
353,309  public,  64,253  private. 

Along  with  this  rapid  growth  in  numbers,  has  gone  a great 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  public  toward  secondary  education. 
It  was  formerly  regarded  as  a luxury  for  the  rich  and  well-to-do, 
and,  therefore,  an  unjust  burden  on  the  public  treasury.  On  this 
ground,  several  cases  were  carried  into  the  courts.  The  most 
famous  of  these  was  the  celebrated  Kalamazoo  case,  in  which 
the  decision  of  the  Michigan  supreme  court  was  prepared  by  the 
distinguished  jurist,  Thomas  M.  Cooley.  Judge  Cooley  defined 
the  attitude  of  the  state  of  Michigan  on  the  subject  of  public  ele- 
mentary education  in  the  following  sentence:  “ We  supposed  it 
had  always  been  understood  in  this  state  that  education,  not 
merely  in  the  rudiments,  but  in  an  enlarged  sense,  was  regarded 
as  an  important  practical  advantage  to  be  supplied,  at  their  op- 
tion, to  rich  and  poor  alike,  and  not  as  something  pertaining 
merely  to  culture  and  accomplishment,  to  be  brought  as  such 
within  the  reach  of  those  whose  accumulated  wealth  enabled  them 
to  pay  for  it.”  The  court  ruled  that  a tax  for  high  school  pur- 
poses was  constitutional,  a decision  concurred  in  by  the  state 
supreme  courts  of  Illinois  and  other  states. 

The  early  high  schools  were  local  in  their  origin  and  varied 
greatly  in  courses,  standards,  and  methods.  In  many  cases,  the 
time  was  divided  among  so  many  subjects  that  efficiency  in  any 
was  impossible.  Oftentimes  the  teachers  had  no  special  prepa- 
ration for  high  school  subjects,  and  wasted  the  time  of  the  pupils 
by  using  methods  suitable  only  for  smaller  children.  In  the  early 
’nineties  the  need  for  greater  uniformity  in  the  courses  offered 
and  a reduction  in  the  number  of  subjects  studied  at  any  one 
time  became  so  evident  that  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion appointed  a committee,  known  as  . the  “ Committee  of  Ten,” 
to  arrange  a number  of  standard  courses  and  to  recommend 
methods  of  teaching  them.  Although  the  detailed  recommenda- 
tions of  this  committee  have  not  been  in  general  followed,  the 


7 


publication  of  its  report,  in  1893,  marks  the  opening  of  anew 
period.  As  a result  of  the  discussion  of  this  report,  three  impor- 
tant practical  reforms  have  gradually  been  adopted:  First,  the 
average  high  school  student  studies  only  four  subjects  at  any  one 
time;  second,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  each  subject  is  studied 
for  at  least  one  year;  third,  instruction  in  each  subject  is  offered 
by  teachers  especially  qualified  to  teach  that  particular  subject. 

Another  field  for  reform  lay  in  the  fact  that  there  was  no 
supervision  or  inspection  of  secondary  schools.  As  the  high 
schools  had  grown  up  as  the  result  of  local  initiative  and  were 
supported  entirely  by  local  taxes,  the  state  hesitated  for  many 
years  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  their  local  management.  In 
fact,  it  has  been  only  within  the  last  ten  years  (U  896-1906)  that 
there  has  been  any  considerable  legislation  on  the  subject.  In 
the  remainder  of  this  paper  we  shall  endeavor  to  describe  the  dif- 
ferent problems  which  gave  rise  to  this  state  legislation,  and  then 
discuss  the  different  policies  adopted,  with  a view  to  the  future 
policy  of  our  state.  In  reviewing  these  efforts,  one  is  struck  with 
the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  legislation  of  the  different  states. 
One  state  has  experimented  along  one  line,  the  next  common- 
wealth has  proceeded  in  an  entirely  different  direction,  and  so  on 
through  the  list.  Only  three  or  four  states,  New  York,  Wiscon- 
sin, Minnesota,  and  California,  have  dealt  adequately  with  the 
subject. 

Ten  years  ago  nearly  all  the  states  in  the  Union  left  the  initi- 
ation of  high  schools  entirely  to  the  localities,  with  the  result  that 
a large  portion  of  population  living  in  rural  districts  were  entirely 
without  high  school  facilities  in  their  home  neighborhood.  The 
sparsity  of  the  population,  and  particularly  the  school  unit  in  vogue 
in  many  states,  the  district  with  its  small  population,  rendered 
the  establishment  of  high  schools  of  any  efficiency  impossible. 
The  deficiency  was  more  important,  as  experience  had  shown, 
that  the  class  thus  denied  high  school  privileges,  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  the  farmers,  was  the  class,  on  the  average,  which 
prized  education  most  highly  and  produced  the  largest  number  of 
social  leaders. 

Two  methods  of  grappling  with  this  problem  occurred  to  the 
school  men  of  the  country.  The  first  was  to  fix  the  financial  re- 


8 


sponsibility  of  secondary  education  in  the  home  district  or  town- 
ship, which  must  either  provide  the  high  school  education  at  home 
or  else  pay  the  tuition  fee  of  the  pupil  at  some  other  high  school. 
Massachusetts  was  the  first  state  to  inaugurate  this  plan.  In  the 
last  few  years  the  other  states  of  New  England — New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Wisconsin,  have  adopted  the  idea  in  their  school 
codes.  The  Pennsylvania  law,  passed  in  1905,  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  this  legislation.  It  reads  as  follows: 

“ Permitting  children,  residing  in  school  districts  in  which 
no  public  high  school  is  maintained,  to  attend  a high  school  in 
some  other  district,  located  near  their  homes,  and  providing  for 
the  payment  of  the  cost  of  tuition  and  school  books. 

“ Section  1.  Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  That  children,  residing  in 
school  districts  in  which  no  public  high  school  is  maintained,  may 
attend  a high  school  in  some  other  district,  located  near  their 
homes;  provided  the  consent  of  the  directors  of  the  district  in 
which  said  high  school  is  located  be  first  obtained;  the  cost  of 
tuition  and  school  books,  which  shall  not  exceed  that  of  the  tui- 
tion and  school  books  of  children  in  the  same  grades  or  courses 
in  the  district  maintaining  such  high  school,  shall  be  paid  to  the 
district  receiving  such  children,  out  of  the  moneys  raised  by  taxa- 
tion for  public  school  purposes  in  the  district  in  which  said  chil- 
dren reside;  Provided,  That,  before  admission  to  a high  school, 
such  pupils  shall  be  examined  and  found  qualified  for  high  school 
work,  by  the  principal  of  such  high  school.” 

Such  legislation,  valuable  as  it  undoubtedly  is  in  providing 
secondary  education  for  the  exceptional  pupil  in  very  backwood 
and  poor  communities,  falls  far  short  of  being  an  ultimate  solu- 
tion of  the  problem,  inasmuch  as  the  tuition  is  only  a small  per- 
centage of  the  total  expense,  where  the  pupil  boards  away  from 
home.  Because  of  this  fact,  the  great  majority  of  country  chil- 
dren would  be  debarred  from  high  school  privileges  under  ordina- 
ry conditions.  Another  objection  to  this  plan  is  that,  just  in  pro- 
portion as  it  is  successful,  it  tends  unduly  to  bring  country  chil- 
dren to  town  at  an  impressionable  age,  and  would,  therefore,  in- 
crease that  drift  away  from  country  life,  which  is  one  of  the  dis- 
couraging features  of  present  day  society. 

The  next  solution  of  the  country  high  school  problem  is  to 


9 


organize  larger  units  than  the  school  district  for  high  school  pur- 
poses. Some  states  have  already  abolished  the  district  entirely 
and  substituted  the  township  for  school  purposes.  This  move- 
ment, while  undoubtedly  sound  for  thickly  settled  Eastern  and 
Middle-Western  states,  is  impossible  for  the  states  of  the  far 
West,  where  distances  would  in  many  sections  prevent  the  ad- 
ministration of  a township  system.  The  school  laws  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  Western  states  permit  districts  to  combine 
for  high  school  purposes.  The  procedure  in  such  cases  is  simple. 
A certain  percentage  of  the  voters  in  each  district  petition  either 
the  county  superintendent  or  local  board.  Upon  receiving  this 
petition,  the  officials  must  call  an  election,  the  details  of  which 
are  carefully  specified.  If  the  result  of  the  election  is  favorable 
to  the  high  school,  another  election  must  be  held  to  elect  a union 
board  of  high  school  directors.  Those  interested  in  this  method 
of  forming  union  high  school  districts  will  find  in  the  appendix  the 
legislation  of  California  and  Arizona  on  the  subject, 

In  each  state  where  such  legislation  has  been  enacted,  some 
few  union  high  school  districts  have  been  successfully  established 
and  operated,  but  in  the  main  the  country  population  refuses  to 
use  the  machinery  which  is  thus  placed  in  their  hands.  The 
reasons  for  this  are  probably  two:  First,  the  number  of  districts 
possible  to  combine  is  in  most  cases  too  small,  not  more  than 
three  or  four.  A small  additional  tax  on  the  property  in  proposed 
union  districts  will  not  support  a really  efficient  high  school;  a 
heavy  tax,  the  people  are  not  anxious  to  levy.  Then  again,  to 
secure  the  proposed  high  school,  much  time  must  be  spent  by 
.somebody  in  travelling  about,  answering  questions  and  securing 
signatures  to  petitions.  In  the  absence  of  some  public-spirited 
person  or  persons  to  do  this,  the  people,  although  well  disposed 
toward  high  schools,  fail  to  get  together  and  organize. 

So  that  as  long  as  conditions  render  the  adoption  of  the 
township  for  general  school  purposes  out  of  the  question  in  the 
states  of  the  far  West,  better  results  can  be  obtained  on  the  basis 
of  organization  by  counties,  the  largest  of  our  units  of  local  gov- 
ernment. 

California,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Montana,  Nevada,  Oregon  and 
Texas  report  the  enactment  of  laws  for  the  organization  of  county 


10 


high  schools.  The  procedure  here  is  similar  to  that  in  the  for- 
mation of  union  high  school  districts.  A certain  portion  of  the 
voters  or  tax-payers  petition  the  county  authorities,  an  election  is 
held,  if  a majority  favors  the  proposed  high  school  the  county 
board  of  supervisors  levies  the  required  taxes  and  appoints  the 
first  board  of  trustees  for  the  high  school.  In  Oregon,  where  the 
law  has  been  in  force  five  years,  seven  counties  out  of  thirty- 
three  have  established  county  high  schools.  In  all  cases  they 
have  been  counties  with  a small  population,  usually  with  only  one 
considerable  town  in  the  county.  Where  there  is  a considerable 
population  in  a county,  the  towns  and  villages  remote  from  the 
county  seat  have  always,  thus  far,  been  strong  enough  to  defeat 
the  proposition.  It  is  evident  that  the  idea  needs  modification  in 
the  larger  counties,  so  that  instead  of  voting  to  establish  a single 
school,, a plan  could  be  submitted  providing  four-year  high  schools 
in  towns  of  considerable  size,  with  two-  and  three-year  high 
schools  in  important  village  centers.  The  situation  calls  not  for 
one  strong  institution,  but  for  a county  system  of  high  schools. 

In  many  small  communities,  the  essential  problem  is  not  to 
establish  high  schools,  for  the  ambition  of  the  people  insists  on 
founding  them  regardless  of  resources,  but  in  securing  sound  work 
in  the  struggling  schools  already  established.  County  superinten- 
dents all  know  towns  which  expect  the  principal  of  a three- room 
common  school  to  teach,  in  addition,  most  of  the  subjects  of  a 
high  school  course.  For  the  sake  of  ten  or  twelve  pupils  in  the 
secondary  stage  of  instruction,  the  training  of  forty  or  fifty  chil- 
dren in  the  grammar  grades  is  sacrificed.  Under  such  condi- 
tions, the  influence  of  an  outside  authority  is  undoubtedly  needed. 
As  the  structure  of  our  school  system  is  extremely  loose,  it  is 
difficult  for  an  outside  authority  to  exert  much  influence  unless  it 
has  some  means  of  reaching  the  schools  financially.  The  grant- 
ing of  special  appropriations  for  high  schools  is,  therefore,  per- 
haps the  most  significant  step  thus  far  taken  in  the  control  of  high 
schools. 

In  all  the  states,  pupils  attending  high  schools  draw  their  rel- 
ative share  of  the  common  school  funds.  Besides  this,  special 
appropriations  for  high  schools  have  been  made  in  the  states  of 
California,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  New  Hampshire, 


New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  Vermont,  Virginia,  and  Wisconsin.  The  sums  voted  vary 
all  the  way  from  $590,000  in  New  York,  and  $217,000  in  Min- 
nesota, to  $8,000  in  New  Hampshire,  the  average  amount  being 
in  the  neighborhood  of  $50,000  per  year. 

The  value  of  the  appropriations  depends,  to  a considerable 
degree,  not  only  on  their  amount,  but  also  on  the  method  of  dis- 
tribution adopted.  Massachusetts,  Nev  Hampshire,  and  Ver- 
mont, endeavor  to  afford  the  largest  amount  of  aid  to  the  weakest 
communities.  Thus,  in  Massachusetts,  “ any  town  having  less 
than  five  hundred  families  and  having  a valuation  of  less  than 
$750,000  is  entitled  to  receive  from  the  treasury  of  the  common- 
wealth all  necessary  amounts  actually  expended  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  pupils  in  approved  high  schools.  Towns  whose  valua- 
tion exceeds  $750,000,  but  whose  number  of  families  is  less  than 
five  hundred,  are  entitled  to  receive  from  the  treasury  half  of  all 
necessary  amounts  expended  for  high  school  tuition  in  approved 
high  schools.  Towns  of  less  than  five  hundred  families,  main- 
taining a high  school  of  their  own,  and  whose  course  and  equip- 
ment are  approved  by  the  state  board  of  education,  and  employ- 
ing at  least  two  teachers,  are  entitled  to  receive  annually  from  the 
state  treasury  $300  for  the  support  of  the  high  school.”  In  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont,  the  tax  rate  is  made  the  criterion,  all 
towns  taxing  themselves  beyond  a certain  limit  are  entitled  to 
support  from  the  state. 

The  Western  states  apportion  the  same  amount  of  financial 
:aid  to  all  high  schools,  regardless  of  community  wealth  or  neces- 
sities. Wisconsin  grants  each  high  school  one-half  the  cost  of 
instruction  up  to  the  limit  of  five  hundred  dollars.  Minnesota  is 
more  liberal  and  appropriates  $1,500  to  each  school.  North  Da- 
kota and  Pennsylvania  discriminate  between  three-  and  four-year 
high  schools,  granting  larger  sums  to  the  latter.  In  both  states 
the  four-year  schools  receive  $800  and  the  three-year  $600. 
Pennsylvania  also  appropriates  $400  to  the  two-year  high  schools, 
a policy  the  wisdom  of  which  is  open  to  some  question. 

New  York  has  enacted  a much  nqore  complex  system  of 
high  school  support  than  any  of  the  foregoing  commonwealths. 
Firstly,  $100  is  appropriated  to  all  the  high  schools  of  the  state; 


12 


ir  • ’ / 

Of  Ht, 

UNIVINWIiy  wt  ILLINOIS. 


this  amounts  to  $70,000  a year;  then  the  state  duplicates  all 
sums  which  the  high  schools  have  spent  for  laboratory  and  library 
equipment.  Last  year  $120,000  covered  this  item.  In  addition 
to  these,  the  state  appropriated  $250,000  to  the  secondary  schools 
on  the  basis  of  attendance,  and  $150,000  to  the  more  sparsely 
settled  country  districts,  enabling  them  to  pay  the  tuition  of  their 
high  school  pupils  away  from  home. 

The  granting  of  state  aid  enables  the  state  authority  to  deter- 
mine the  standard  of  high  school  efficiency,  below  which  no 
money  will  be  granted.  California  and  Minnesota  provide  that 
each  state-aided  high  school  shall  establish  at  least  one  course 
admitting  to  the  state  university.  The  following  regulations 
passed  by  the  New  Jersey  board  of  education  are  typical  of  the 
stricter  system  of  control  now  adopted  by  many  states.  The  rules 
are  for  “approved”  or  four-year  high  schools.  Special  regula- 
tions were  also  adopted  for  “partial  ” or  three-year  high  schools. 

(66)  In  order  to  be  approved,  a high  school  must  meet 
the  following  conditions; 

(A)  It  must  have  at  least  one  course  of  study,  approved 
by  the  state  board  of  education,  covering  four  full  years  of  school 
work. 

( B)  The  teaching  and  equipment  must  be  approved  by  the 
state  board  of  education. 

(C)  The  teaching  force  must  be  adequate  in  number,  and 
shall,  in  every  case,  consist  of  at  least  three  teachers,  each  of 
whom  shall  be  engaged  exclusively  in  high  school  work. 

(D)  Diplomas  shall  be  granted  only  to  pupils  who  shall 
have  completed  a full  four  (4)  years  course,  aggregating  at  least 
seventy-two  (72)  academic  counts.  The  counts  shall  be  reck- 
oned in  accordance  with  the  number  of  recitations  per  week  of  a 
school  year  of  at  least  38  weeks,  and  the  recitation  periods  shall 
average  at  least  40  minutes. 

The  systems  of  financial  aid  are  yet,  in  most  cases,  so  new 
that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  their  exact  results.  The  effects 
are  confined  to  the  smaller  communities.  The  larger  towns  and 
cities  do  not  need  the  money,  and  value  still  less  the  supervision. 
Dr.  F.  E.  Bolton,  of  the  University  of  Iowa,  who  has  written  an 
able  article,  “ Special  State  Aid  to  High  Schools,”  in  the  Edu 


13 


cational  Review,  February,  1906,  has  collected  a large  mass  of 
expert  testimony  from  school  men  of  experience  supporting  the 
policy  of  financial  aid.  A striking  example  of  the  influence  which 
support  can  create  is  found  in  Virginia,  as  described  by  the  state 
superintendent.  “ The  success  of  the  high  school  act  has  been 
phenomenal.  The  $50,000  appropriation  by  the  state  has  been 
supplemented  to  the  extent  or  at  least  $200,000  by  local  high 
school  funds  and  voluntary  contributions,  and  nearly  one  hundred 
fifty  high  schools  have  been  established  in  Virginia  during  the  past 
six  months.” 

The  states  have  worked  out  several  different  plans  of  super- 
vising and  inspecting  high  schools.  In  a majority  of  the  states  of 
the  South  and  West,  it  is  performed  by  the  representatives  of  the 
state  university.  Sometimes  this  is  distinctly  provided  for  in  the 
school  law,  as  in  California,  but  it  is  usually  done  by  the  univer- 
sities on  their  own  initiative  and  for  their  own  ends.  Exceptions 
to  this  general  policy  are  Kansas,  Minnesota,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  and  Wisconsin,  which  provide  special  high  school  inspec- 
tors under  the  control  of  the  state  department  of  education,  or  a 
special  high  school  board,  as  in  Minnesota.  A few  states  try  to 
control  the  standard  of  the  high  schools  through  an  elaborate  system 
of  written  reports  without  inspection.  If  rigidly  enforced,  such  a 
system  has  value,  but  it  can  never  be  an  adequate  substitute  for 
actual  visitation  and  supervision. 

In  the  past  the  state  universities  have  performed,  in  many 
states,  a distinct  service  for  the  high  schools  in  insisting  on  a 
better  quality  of  teaching.  Frequently  theirs  was  the  only  influ- 
ence available.  As  a permanent  policy,  however,  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  the  interests  of  society  are  likely  to  be  promoted 
by  intrusting  the  shaping  of  any  educational  institution  to  another 
institution  which  has  its  own  selfish  and  distinct  ends  to  serve. 
This  theoretical  distrust  is  strengthened  by  the  knowledge  that  in 
a few  states  the  universities  have  actually  abused  their  authority, 
by  refusing  to  accredit  work  done  by  graduates  of  other  universi- 
ties, and  in  sacrificing  the  mental  development  of  the  high  school 
student  to  the  technical  requirements  for  university  courses.  The 
university  demands  are  frequently  framed  by  men  who  have  no 
acquaintance  with  high  school  conditions,  and  no  other  ideal  in 


14 


education  than  the  prosperity  of  their  own  particular  department 
of  study.  As  a temporary  stimulus,  university  inspection  is  use- 
ful; as  a permanent  policy  it  tends  to  submerge  the  original  pur- 
pose of  the  high  school. 

To  place  the  important  function  of  inspecting  high  schools  in 
the  hands  of  men  acquainted  only  with  the  conditions  and  meth- 
ods of  elementary  schools  would  be  a much  more  serious  mis- 
take, because  the  high  schools  have  been  so  recently  emanci- 
pated from  the  dominion  of  elementary  ideals  and  methods,  that 
a reversion  to  these  must  be  constantly  guarded  against.  The 
nearest  approach  to  a balance  of  these  divergent  interests  is  found 
in  the  plan  devised  by  Minnesota,  where  the  high  schools  are  con- 
trolled by  a board  consisting  of  the  state  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion, the  president  of  the  state  university,  the  president  of  the 
state  board  of  normal  school  directors,  one  other  superintendent, 
and  one  person  appointed  by  the  governor.  This  board  has  entire 
control  of  the  schools  and  appoints  a state  high  school  inspector, 
who  has  the  actual  administration  of  the  schools. 

Another  tendency  in  the  direction  of  centralization  takes  the 
form  of  state  high  school  courses  of  study,  which  are  now  found 
in  twenty-eight  states.  In  two-thirds  of  these  the  course  is  merely 
advisory  in  character;  in  the  other  one-third  it  is  mandatory.  As 
a matter  of  fact,  nearly  all  the  smaller  communities  use  the  high 
school  course  as  a guide,  regardless  of  its  legal  status,  while  the 
cities  arrange  their  courses  without  much  reference  to  it.  With 
the  exception  of  Louisiana  and  Montana,  which  have  three-year 
courses,  all  the  other  states  provide  for  a course  four  years  in 
length.  The  newer  high  school  courses  of  study  favor  great  flex- 
ibility, which  is  secured  either  by  a number  of  parallel  courses  or 
a list  of  options.  Many  of  the  states  publish  high  school  manuals, 
which  furnish  detailed  instructions  as  to  method  and  subject  mat- 
ter. These,  together  with  the  courses  of  study,  have  very  largely 
standardized  secondary  education  in  the  last  few  years,  so  that  an 
observer  is  able  to  determine  just  how  much  work  in  any  course 
a student  should  have  done  in  a given  length  of  time.  The  high 
school  course  for  the  state  of  Washington,  printed  below,  will  give 
the  reader  an  excellent  example  of  a subject  schedule  of  the  newer 
type.  The  long  list  of  options  in  the  last  column  of  the  table 
would  only  be  possible  in  a large  city  high  school.  The  commer- 
cial course  would  also  be  omitted  in  many  schools. 


15 


. 


it:  .<f 

WNI  verify  yflLitHQi^ 


FOURTH  YEAR  THIRD  YEAR  SECOND  YEAR  FIRST  YEAR 


OUTLINE  COURSE  OK  STUDY  KOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


'repai 


REQUIRED  IN  ALL  COURSES 


Both  Semesters 

Algebra 

English 


Plane  Geometry 

Rhetoric  and  English 
Classics 


SCIENTIFIC  COURSE 

CLASSICAL  COURSE 

ENGLISH  COURSE 

COMMERCIAL  COURSE 

OPTIONS 

First 

Semester 

Physical  Geography 

Option 

Latin 

Option 

Physical  Geography 

Option 

Commercial  Arithmetic  or 
Bookkeeping 

Option 

Ancient  History  or 
European  History 
Drawing 

Physical  Geography 

Latin 

Physical  Geography 

Commercial  Geography  or 
Bookkeeping 

Modern  Language 

Manual  Training  or 

! M 

Option 

Option 

Option 

Option 

Household  Arts 

Botany  or  Physiology 

Latin 

Botany  or  Physiology 

Bookkeeping  or 
Commercial  Arithmetic 

European  History  or 
Ancient  History 

iZ  E 

CO 

Option 

Option 

Option 

Option 

Drawing 

0 "** 

Botany  or  Zoology 

Latin 

Botany  or  Zoology 

Bookkeeping  or 
Commercial  Geography 

Modern  Language 

Manual  Training  or 

S E 

CO  <u 

CO 

Option 

Option 

Option 

< Option 

Household  Arts 

English 


Thysics 


Modern  Language 
Option 


Modern  Language 
Option 


Latin 

Option 


Latin 

Option 


Algebra 

Option 


Geometry 

Option 


Stenography  and  Typewriting 
Option 

Stenography  and  Typewriting 
Option 


U.  S.  History  and  Civics 

First 

Semester 

Modern  Language 
Chemistry 

Option 

Latin 

English 

Option 

English 

Option 

Option 

Commercial  Law 

English 

Option 

-5 

Modern  Language 

Latin 

English 

Economics 

Advanced  Stenography 

| s 

Chemistry 

English 

Option 

and  Typewriting 

1 QJ  E 

W M 

Option 

Option 

Option 

Option 

English  History 
Drawing 
Higher  Algebra 
Solid  Geometry 
Manual  Training  or 
Household  Arts 
Geology 

High  School  Arithmetic 
U.  S.  History  and  Civics 
(Only  for  districts  maintaining  a 
three-year  high  school) 


Drawing 
Solid  Geometry 
Trigonometry 
Manual  Training  or 
Household  Arts 
Geology 
Astronomy 
Psychology 

High  School  Arithmetic 


NOTES 

1.  Options  for  any  year  may  be  filled  by  selection  of  any  subjects  prescribed  in  any  course  provided  for  that  year,  or  from  the  subjects  provided  for  the  years  designated. 

2.  Physical  Geography  may  be  given  either  for  one  semester  or  for  two  semesters. 

3.  In  those  districts  which  are  not  equipped  to  teach  Chemistry,  the  City  Superintendent  or  High  School  Principal  may  place  Physics  in  the  fourth  year. 


The  same  lack  of  uniformity,  visible  elsewhere  in  this  field, 
is  evident  in  the  certification  of  high  school  teachers.  Some 
states  have  no  legislation  on  the  subject,  so  that  anyone  may  teach 
in  high  schools  without  any  legal  guarantee  of  fitness.  Many 
other  states  compel  high  school  teachers  to  pass  examinations 
intended  for  elementary  teachers;  others  permit  any  college  grad- 
uate, regardless  of  subjects  or  qualifications,  to  teach,  upon  the 
basis  of  a college  degree.  In  Indiana,  which  has  one  of  the  best 
defined  laws  on  this  subject,  the  candidate  for  a high  school  cer- 
tificate must  prepare  himself  on  both  the  academic  side  (subjects 
taught  in  high  school),  and  on  a list  of  professional  subjects, 
which  includes  psychology,  school  management,  principles  of  edu- 
cation, and  school  law.  A college  diploma  entitles  the  holder  to 
an  exemption  from  the  academic,  but  not  from  the  professional, 
examination.  In  California,  Kansas,  Michigan,  and  other  states, 
a college  graduate  who  has  passed  with  credit  a certain  number 
of  courses  in  the  department  of  pedagogy,  receives  a high  school 
certificate. 

At  one  time,  most  of  the  high  school  teachers  of  the  country 
were  grade  teachers  of  unusual  ability  and  industry,  who  had 
worked  their  way  upward  by  private  study,  tested  by  examinations. 
Of  late,  in  the  most  progressive  communities,  college  and  uni- 
versity graduates  have  largely  taken  the  places  formerly  held  by 
the  promoted  grade  teachers.  The  change  has  been  salutary,  as 
far  as  scholarship,  thoroughness  of  teaching,  and  intelligence,  are 
concerned;  but  in  the  art  of  managing  and  controlling  pupils,  the 
new  teachers  have,  in  the  main,  been  inferior  to  the  old. 

Owing  to  this  state  of  affairs,  a number  of  the  stronger  nor- 
mal schools  have  begun  a systematic  campaign  to  displace  uni- 
versity graduates,  and  to  substitute  their  own  alumni  as  teachers 
in  high  schools.  This  movement  has  been  of  essential  service  in 
indicating  the  chief  weakness  of  university  graduates  as  teachers, 
viz.,  their  lack  of  acquaintance  with  teaching  technique  and  de- 
vices. By  spending  a small  sum  of  money  in  the  establishment 
of  practice  high  schools,  the  universities  can  easily  remedy  this 
defect.  On  the  other  hand,  the  equipment  and  limited  teaching 
staff  of  the  normal  schools  forbid  competition  with  the  universities 
in  the  field  of  scholarship  and'  scientific  method. 


17 


High  school  certificates  should  never  be  general  in  charac- 
ter, but  should  be  good  only  in  a single  subject  or  group  of  sub- 
jects. No  person  in  four  or  five  years  beyond  the  high  school 
can  qualify  himself  adequately  to  teach  the  entire  high  school 
curriculum.  Close  specialization  in  a single  subject  would  be  im- 
possible for  one  who  expected  to  work  in  the  country  high  schools, 
but  at  least  the  division  of  subjects  into  the  mathematical,  scien- 
tific, and  historical-linguistic  groups,  could  be  made,  as  no  high 
school  should  exist  with  less  than  two  teachers.  Just  so  long  as 
the  general  certificates  are  issued,  just  that  long  will  secondary 
teachers  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  whims  of  school  boards  and  prin- 
cipals who  will  compel  them  to  teach  any  subject  on  the  list. 


18 


A 


A STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF 
FOUR- YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
& IN  OREGON  ^ 


GEORGE  W.  HUG 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 


In  making  a study  of  the  high  schools  of  the  State  of  Ore- 
gon, great  difficulty  was  encountered  in  securing  a complete- re- 
port of  the  conditions  as  they  really  are.  Complete  statistics 
could  not  be  secured  from  some  of  the  schools,  and  no  report 
could  be  secured  from  some  districts. 

Circular  letters  including  blank  forms  to  be  filled  out  were 
sent  to  every  high  school  in  the  state.  A second  circular,  urging 
the  necessity  of  filling  out  these  blank  forms,  was  sent  some  time 
after  the  first.  As  a result,  most  of  the  high  schools  replied.  The 
three-  and  four-year  high  schools  responded  more  readily  than 
those  with  one  and  two  grades.  Personal  letters  were  also  sent 
to  some  of  the  more  important  high  schools.  Nineteen  out  of 
twenty-three  four-year  high  schools  responded,  either  with  a com- 
plete or  partial  report.  About  one-half  of  the  three-year  high 
schools  responded.  Some  of  the  two  year  schools  reported,  while 
the  number  of  one-year  schools  reporting  was  very  small.  On 
this  account,  our  study  in  this  article  is  confined  to  the  nineteen 
four-year  high  schools. 

Information  was  secured  relating  to  the  time  of  organization, 
length  of  course,  the  number  of  graduates  since  the  establishment 
of  the  high  school,  the  number  of  graduates  in  the  year  1905,  and 
also  the  number  of  college  preparatory  students.  The  number  of 
students  and  teachers  in  each  high  school,  the  average  number  of 
pupils  to  the  teacher,  and  the  place  of  preparation  of  each  teach- 
er, were  complete  in  almost  every  case.  The  number  of  sub- 
jects taught  in  each  high  school,  the  number  of  pupils  studying 
each  subject,  were  filled  out  very  completely  by  all  who  sent  in 
reports.  In  all  cases  relating  to  students  and  teachers,  a classifi- 
cation was  made  into  male  and  female  divisions.  The  number  of 
books  in  the  libraries  of  each  school  was  given  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances. A rather  incomplete  account  was  given  of  the  value  of 
grounds,  buildings,  apparatus,  and  furniture.  The  amount  of  ap- 
propriation obtained  by  each  school  was  too  unsatisfactory  to  be 
useful.  The  tuition  for  non-resident  students  was  given  in  nearly 
all  instances.  The  work,  as  a whole,  is  somewhat  incomplete, 
but  it  is  hoped  that  there  may  be  some  valuable  information. 

Author. 


21 


HIGH  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION  IN  OREGON 


The  organization  of  high  schools  in  Oregon  dates  back  as  far 
as  1890,  when  the  high  school  at  Ashland  was  organized.  From 
then  on  high  schools  have  been  organized  from  time  to  time. 
Out  of  twenty-three  four-year  high  schools,  four  did  not  report 
at  all,  leaving  nineteen  reporting.  From  these  nineteen,  four  did 
not  know  the  time  of  their  organization.  The  remaining  fifteen 
gave  the  following  report.  Ashland,  1890;  Baker  City,  1891;  Cot- 
tage Grove,  1896;  Eugene,  LaGrande,  and  Springfield,  1897; 
Pendleton,  1898;  Astoria,  1900;  Roseburg,  1901;  Prineville  and 
Tillamook,  1902;  Burns  and  Salem,  1904;  Gresham  and  Wood- 
burn,  1905;  Grants  Pass,  Medford,  and  Portland,  did  not  give  the 
time  of  organization.  The  above  figures  show  that  the  high 
schools  of  Oregon  have  had  a steady  and  uniform  growth. 

High  schools  maybe  organized  as  ( 1 ) district  high  schools 
(2)  city  high  schools,  (3)  county  high  schools,  or  (4)  high 
schools  as  an  extension  of  the  grammar  grades.  Out  of  nineteen 
reporting,  three  were  organized  as  district  high  schools,  four  as 
city  high  schools,  four  as  county  high  schools,  and  seven  as  ex- 
tensions of  the  grammar  grades.  Two  did  not  report  on  organ- 
ization. It  was  discovered  that  the  oldest  high  schools  were  or- 
ganized under  the  extension  of  the  grammar  grade  law.  The  city 
and  the  district  high  schools  are  of  more  recent  origin,  while  the 
county  high  schools  have  been  just  recently  organized,  and  all  in- 
dications show  that  they  will  be  organized  throughout  the  state. 

Twelve  four-year  high  schools  reported  the  number  of  gradu- 
ates since  establishment.  Portland,  Cottage  Grove,  Eugene, 
Grants  Pass,  and  Medford,  did  not  report.  Salem  and  Burns  have 
had  no  graduates.  The  remainder  reported  334  males  and  500 
females,  making  a total  of  834  graduates  since  establishment. 
Taking  this  as  a basis,  the  relation  of  male  and  female  graduates 
is  40  and  60  per  cent. 

All  schools  reported  their  graduates  in  1905,  except  Wood- 


23 


burn,  the  number  of  boys  being  1 17  and  the  number  of  girls  211, 
making  a total  of  328,  a ratio  of  35.5  to  64.5  per  cent,  of  boys  to 
girls.  Several  schools  reported  the  number  of  college  preparatory 
students,  but  no  definite  conclusion  can  be  had,  except  that  the 
percentage  of  boys  to  girls  increases.  The  relation  of  buys  to 
girls,  from  the  figures  secured,  show  a relation  of  53  to  47  per 
cent.  We  see  from  this  that  girls  are  not  so  much  inclined  to 
attend  college  as  are  boys. 

Seventeen  four-year  high  schools  reported  the  number  of 
students  in  their  school.  The  total  number  reached  3,117 — 
1,262  boys  and  1,855  girls.  This  shows  that  about  one-third  of 
the  total  number  of  students  are  boys.  Portland  is  first,  with  559 
boys  and  893  girls,  making  in  all  1 ,452  students.  Eugene  comes 
second,  with  131  boys  and  174  girls,  showing  a total  of  305.  Sa- 
lem ranks  third,  with  120  boys  and  135  girls,  in  all  255.  Baker 
City  is  fourth,  with  88  boys  and  85  girls,  making  a total  of  173. 
Pendleton  did  not  report.  The  Dalles  has  126  students,  Ashland 
108,  Roseburg  106,  Astoria  103.  The  remainder  are  under  the 
100  mark.  LaGrande  has  90  students. 

The  number  of  teachers  varies  from  two  to  thirty-two. 
Portland  leads,  with  thirty-two  teachers.  Eugene  has  nine,  Sa- 
lem seven,  Baker  City  and  Pendleton  six  each,  while  the  others 
range  from  two  to  four  teachers  each.  The  average  number  of 
students  to  the  teacher  varies  from  fourteen  to  forty-five;  but  the 
average  number  of  students  to  the  teacher  in  most  of  the  schools 
ranges  from  twenty  to  thirty,  the  general  average  being  twenty- 
six  and  two-thirds. 

Inquiry  was  made  as  to  where  the  high  school  teachers  were 
prepared  for  their  work.  One  hundred  and  eight  teachers  are 
employed  in  the  nineteen  four-year  high  schools  reporting.  The 
place  of  preparation  of  sixty-four  teachers  was  secured.  Of  the 
remaining  forty-four,  thirty-two  were  from  Portland  and  the  other 
twelve  were  scattered  throughout  the  state.  Out  of  sixty-four 
teachers,  twenty-five  were  prepared  in  Oregon,  while  the  remain- 
ing thirty-nine  received  their  education  in  other  states.  Of  those 
prepared  in  the  state,  ten  are  from  the  University  of  Oregon, 
three  each  from  Willamette  University,  McMinnville  College,  and 
the  Ashland  Normal,  two  from  Monmouth  Normal,  one  from  the 


24 


Oregon  Agricultural  College,  and  three  from  other  places  in  the 
state.  Of  the  thirty-nine  teachers  that  were  prepared  out  of  the 
state,  three  each  are  from  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  and  Iowa 
Wesleyan  College,  two  each  from  Stanford  University,  University 
of  California,  Oberlin  College,  and  Colorado  State  Normal,  one 
each  from  Whitman  College,  Illinois  Wesleyan,  University  of 
Missouri,  Parsons  College,  University  of  Michigan,  University  of 
Arizona,  University  of  South  Dakota,  Western  University,  Brock- 
ville  College,  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Puget  Sound  Univer- 
sity, Wellesly,  Smith,  and  Elmira.  Eleven  were  prepared  in  other 
places,  either  small  colleges,  normals,  or  high  schools.  It  may 
be  seen  that  the  high  school  teachers  of  Oregon  are  well  prepared 
for  their  work.  Most  of  them  have  either  a college  education  or 
a normal  school  training,  and  in  a great  many  cases  it  was  found 
that  some  teachers  had  both  a normal  school  and  college  educa- 
tion. 

The  average  number  of  subjects  taught  in  the  high  school  is 
thirteen.  Some  have  only  ten  subjects,  while  others  have  as 
many  as  seventeen.  Latin,  English,  Algebra,  and  History,  are 
taught  in  all  the  nineteen  four-year  high  schools  reporting.  Geom- 
etry, Rhetoric,  and  Physical  Geography,  are  taught  in  all  except 
one;  Botany  and  Physics  in  all  but  four.  German  and  Civics  are 
taught  in  eleven  out  of  the  nineteen  high  schools;  Geology  in  ten; 
Higher  Arithmetic  in  nine;  Physiology  and  Bookkeeping  in  eight; 
Chemistry  in  six;  Trigonometry  in  four;  Zoology  in  three;  Eco- 
nomics and  Greek  in  two;  and  Astronomy  in  one.  Business  courses 
are  also  given  in  some  of  the  high  schools. 

The  number  of  students  taking  each  of  the  following  subjects 
are:  Latin,  1,453;  English,  2,650;  Algebra,  2,296;  History, 
2,179;  Geometry,  1,053;  Rhetoric,  1,219;  Physical  Geography, 
1,001;  Botany,  308;  Physics,  497;  German,  664;  Civics,  383; 
Geology,  119;  Higher  Arithmetic,  103;  Physiology,  529;  Book- 
keeping, 231;  Chemistry,  298;  Trigonometry,  39;  Zoology,  38; 
Economics,  11;  Greek,  21;  Astronomy,  23;  Psychology,  2. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  the  high  schools  in  which  some  of 
the  more  advanced  studies  are  taught.  Psychology  is  taught  in 
the  Medford  high  school;  Greek  at  LaGrande  and  Prineville: 
Economics  at  Cottage  Grove  and  Springfield;  Astronomy  at  Rose- 


25 


burg;  Zoology  at  Cottage  Grove,  Springfield  and  Portland;  Trigo- 
nometry at  Ashland,  Astoria  and  Portland;  Chemistry  at  Astoria, 
Baker  City,  Medford,  Pendleton,  Portland,  and  Salem. 

Most  of  the  high  schools  reported  the  number  of  copies  in 
their  libraries.  Portland  has  the  largest,  with  1,740  volumes. 
Roseburg  and  LaGrande  have  1 ,000  volumes  each.  The  remain- 
der average  from  a few  copies  to  600. 

The  average  value  of  the  grounds  of  the  four-year  high 
schools  is  from  $1,000  to  $3,000.  The  buildings  range  from 
$10,000  to  $75,000.  Tuition  for  non-resident  students  is  paya- 
ble by  the  month,  term,  or  year,  according  to  the  regulations  of 
the  various  schools.  Twenty  dollars  per  year  is  the  general  av- 
erage. 


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